Evaluation of Stainless-Steel Mesh 304 Cathode Performance in a Microbial Fuel Cell for Tofu Wastewater Treatment
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Keywords:
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Tofu Wastewater (TWW), MFC, SSM–304, Current Density, Coulombic Efficiency
Abstract
Currently, tofu wastewater (TWW) is one of the major environmental issues that must be addressed. When discharged untreated TWW into natural water bodies or soil, it poses a serious threat to the environment. Therefore, effective treatment of TWW is crucial before to disposal. As an advanced bio-electrochemical technology, the microbial fuel cell (MFC) offers a promising approach to reduce pollutants while simultaneously generating electricity. However, the choice of cathode material is crucial for enhancing MFC performance. This study aims to evaluate the performance of an MFC using an SSM-304 cathode with TWW as the target substrate. Several characteristics of TWW including pH, chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), total solids (TS), total dissolved solids (TDS), and total suspended solids (TSS), were analyzed before and after MFC treatment. Additionally, the performance of the MFC system was further evaluated based on voltage output (V), current density (J), coulombic efficiency (CE), and MFC efficiency (?MFC). The results show that COD and BOD were reduced by 69.56% and 64.00%, while TS, TDS, and TSS increased by 48.79%, 32.24%, and 45.15%, respectively. The MFC system with SSM-304 produced a voltage of 167 mV, a current density of 267.2 mA/m², a coulombic efficiency of 3.35%, power density of 27.89 mW, and MFC efficiency of 10.43%. Overall, this study demonstrated the potential of MFCs for simultaneous wastewater treatment and energy recovery.
References
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Calbry-Muzyka, A., H. Madi, F. Rüsch-Pfund, M. Gandiglio, and S. Biollaz (2022). Biogas Composition From Agricultural Sources and Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid Waste. Renewable Energy, 181; 1000–1007.
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Chen, L., C. Wang, and J. Su (2023). Understanding the Effect of Different Glucose Concentrations in the Oligotrophic Bacterium Bacillus subtilis BS-G1 Through Transcriptomics Analysis. Microorganisms, 11(10); 2401.
Christgen, B., M. Spurr, E. M. Milner, P. Izadi, C. McCann, E. Yu, T. Curtis, K. Scott, and I. M. Head (2023). Does Pre-Enrichment of Anodes With Acetate to Select for Geobacter spp. Enhance Performance of Microbial Fuel Cells When Switched to More Complex Substrates? Frontiers in Microbiology, 14; 1–12.
Feidenhans’l, A. A., Y. N. Regmi, C. Wei, D. Xia, J. Kibsgaard, and L. A. King (2024). Precious Metal Free Hydrogen Evolution Catalyst Design and Application. Chemical Reviews, 124(9); 5617–5667.
Garbini, G. L., A. Barra Caracciolo, and P. Grenni (2023). Electroactive Bacteria in Natural Ecosystems and Their Applications in Microbial Fuel Cells for Bioremediation: A Review. Microorganisms, 11(5); 1255.
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Haque, M. M., M. K. Mosharaf, M. A. Haque, M. Z. H. Tanvir, and M. K. Alam (2021). Biofilm Formation, Production of Matrix Compounds and Biosorption of Copper, Nickel and Lead by Different Bacterial Strains. Frontiers in Microbiology, 12(June); 1–19.
Ishaq, A., M. I. M. Said, S. B. Azman, A. A. Dandajeh, G. S. Lemar, and Z. T. Jagun (2024). Utilization of Microbial Fuel Cells as a Dual Approach for Landfill Leachate Treatment and Power Production: A Review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(29); 41683–41733.
Karamzadeh, M., M. Kadivarian, P. Mahmoodi, S. S. Asefi, and A. Taghipour (2023). Modeling and Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Carbon Source on the Performance of Tubular Microbial Fuel Cell. Scientific Reports, 13(1); 1–8.
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Kato, S. and Y. Kansha (2024). Comprehensive Review of Industrial Wastewater Treatment Techniques. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(39); 51064–51097.
Kyriazis, A., G. Aggelis, and A. Lianou (2025). Pomegranate Residues as Fermentation Feedstock for Bioethanol Production: Process Design and Characterization. Carbon Resources Conversion; 100338.
Mahene, W. L., T. Kivevele, and R. Machunda (2023). The Role of Textural Properties and Surface Chemistry of Activated Carbon Support in Catalytic Deoxygenation of Triglycerides Into Renewable Diesel. Catalysis Communications, 181; 106737.
Mahmoodzadeh, F., N. Navidjouy, S. Alizadeh, and M. Rahimnejad (2023). Investigation of Microbial Fuel Cell Performance Based on the Nickel Thin Film Modified Electrodes. Scientific Reports, 13(1); 1–13.
Mecheri, B., R. Gokhale, C. Santoro, M. A. Costa De Oliveira, A. D’epifanio, S. Licoccia, A. Serov, K. Artyushkova, and P. Atanassov (2018). Oxygen Reduction Reaction Electrocatalysts Derived From Iron Salt and Benzimidazole and Aminobenzimidazole Precursors and Their Application in Microbial Fuel Cell Cathodes. ACS Applied Energy Materials, 1(10); 5755–5765.
Misto, Siswanto, T. Mulyono, Sutisna, and D. D. Alawiyah (2024). Booster Circuit for Harvesting Renewable Energy Based on Bioelectric Microbial Fuel Cells Whose Power Can Be Adjusted. In BIO Web of Conferences, volume 101, page 01006.
Nawaz, A., I. ul Haq, K. Qaisar, B. Gunes, S. I. Raja, K. Mohyuddin, and H. Amin (2022). Microbial Fuel Cells: Insight Into Simultaneous Wastewater Treatment and Bioelectricity Generation. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 161; 357–373.
Ncube, A., J. Cocker, D. Ellis, and G. Fiorentino (2021). Biogas From Source Separated Organic Waste Within a Circular and Life Cycle Perspective: A Case Study in Ontario, Canada. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators, 11; 1–12.
Ngabala, F. J. and J. K. Emmanuel (2024). Potential Substrates for Biogas Production Through Anaerobic Digestion—An Alternative Energy Source. Heliyon, 10(23); e40632.
Niju, S., V. Shruthi, and K. Priyadharshini (2025). Comprehensive Insights Into Biological and Bio-Electrochemical Treatment of the Sago Industry Wastewater: Challenges and Future Perspectives. Sustainable Chemistry for the Environment, 10; 100242.
Obileke, K. C., H. Onyeaka, E. L. Meyer, and N. Nwokolo (2021). Microbial Fuel Cells, a Renewable Energy Technology for Bio-Electricity Generation: A Mini-Review. Electrochemistry Communications, 125; 107003.
Quijano, L., R. Rodrigues, D. Fischer, J. D. Tovar-Castro, A. Payne, L. Navone, Y. Hu, H. Yan, P. Pinmanee, E. Poon, J. H. Yang, and E. Barro (2024). Bacterial Cellulose Cookbook: A Systematic Review on Sustainable and Cost-Effective Substrates. Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts, 9; 379–409.
Rinaldi, W., A. Abubakar, R. F. Rahmi, and S. Silmina (2018). Tofu Wastewater Treatment by Sediment Microbial Fuel Cells. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, volume 334, page 012068.
Rozaki, Z. (2021). Food Security Challenges and Opportunities in Indonesia Post COVID-19. In Advances in Food Security and Sustainability, volume 6. Elsevier, pages 119–168.
Satar, I., W. R. W. Daud, B. H. Kim, M. R. Somalu, M. Ghasemi, M. H. A. Bakar, T. Jafary, and S. N. Timmiati (2018). Performance of Titanium–Nickel (Ti/Ni) and Graphite Felt–Nickel (GF/Ni) Electrodeposited by Ni as Alternative Cathodes for Microbial Fuel Cells. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 89; 67–76.
Satar, I., A. Permadi, and S. Latifatunnajib (2021). Microbial Enrichment Process in the Anode of Microbial Fuel Cell System Using Tofu Wastewater (TWW) Anaerobic Sludge. ECOTROPHIC: Jurnal Ilmu Lingkungan (Journal of Environmental Science), 15(2); 204–212.
Satar, I., M. M. Sirajuddin, A. Permadi, and S. Latifatunnajib (2023). Tofu Wastewater (TWW) Treatment and Hydrogen (H2) Production by Using a Microbial Electrolysis Cell (MEC) System. Indonesian Journal of Environmental Management and Sustainability, 7(1); 13–19.
Setianingsih, N. I., D. Widyakusuma, and Nilawati (2015). The Treatment of High Salinity Waste Water With Activated Sludge System. Jurnal Riset Teknologi Pencegahan Pencemaran Industri, 6(2); 45–50.
Shen, X., Y. Xu, L. Yin, J. Cheng, D. Yin, R. Zhao, Y. Dai, X. Hu, H. Hou, K. Qian, X. Pan, and Y. Liu (2023). Tofu Whey Wastewater as a Beneficial Supplement to Poultry Farming: Improving Production Performance and Protecting Against Salmonella Infection. Foods, 12(1); 79.
Singh, B. J., A. Chakraborty, and R. Sehgal (2023). A Systematic Review of Industrial Wastewater Management: Evaluating Challenges and Enablers. Journal of Environmental Management, 348; 119230.
Sonawane, J. M., R. Mahadevan, A. Pandey, and J. Greener (2022). Recent Progress in Microbial Fuel Cells Using Substrates From Diverse Sources. Heliyon, 8(12); e12353.
Sun, S., Y. Ding, M. Liu, M. Xian, and G. Zhao (2020). Comparison of Glucose, Acetate and Ethanol as Carbon Resource for Production of Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate) and Other Acetyl-CoA Derivatives. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 8; 1–13.
Tauk, M., P. Sistat, R. Habchi, M. Cretin, F. Zaviska, and M. Bechelany (2025). Exploring Flow-Electrode Capacitive Deionization: An Overview and New Insights. Desalination, 597; 118392.
Wagiman, W., I. R. Ardaniswari, and W. P. Nugravianto (2020). Biogas Production From Tofu Waste to Improve the Environmental Performance of Tofu Industry. Agroindustrial Journal, 7(1); 459.
Yaqoob, A. A., M. N. Mohamad Ibrahim, S. Rodríguez Couto, and A. Ahmad (2021). Preparation, Characterization, and Application of Modified Carbonized Lignin as an Anode for Sustainable Microbial Fuel Cell. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 155; 49–60.
Yoon, H., K. Jo, K. J. Kim, and J. Yoon (2019). Effects of Characteristics of Cation Exchange Membrane on Desalination Performance of Membrane Capacitive Deionization. Desalination, 458; 116–121.
Almomani, F. and R. R. Bhosale (2020). Enhancing the Production of Biogas Through Anaerobic Co-Digestion of Agricultural Waste and Chemical Pre-Treatments. Chemosphere, 255; 126805.
An, Z. K., Y. C. Song, K. T. Kim, C. Y. Lee, S. H. Jang, and B. U. Bae (2023). The Bioaugmentation of Electroactive Microorganisms Enhances Anaerobic Digestion. Fermentation, 9(11); 1–15.
Barthelay, T., R. Gray, H. Richards, P. Rodriguez Santana, S. Britto, K. Geraki, Z. Xia, J. Xu, L. E. Asp, C. Bowen, F. Marken, A. Lunt, and A. Rhead (2025). Comparative Analysis of Cathode Morphologies in Structural Batteries Using X-Ray Absorption Near Edge Spectroscopy (XANES) and Electrochemical Methods. Journal of Power Sources, 630; 236050.
Calbry-Muzyka, A., H. Madi, F. Rüsch-Pfund, M. Gandiglio, and S. Biollaz (2022). Biogas Composition From Agricultural Sources and Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid Waste. Renewable Energy, 181; 1000–1007.
Chen, H., O. Simoska, K. Lim, M. Grattieri, M. Yuan, F. Dong, Y. S. Lee, K. Beaver, S. Weliwatte, E. M. Gaffney, and S. D. Minteer (2020). Fundamentals, Applications, and Future Directions of Bioelectrocatalysis. Chemical Reviews, 120(23); 12903–12993.
Chen, L., C. Wang, and J. Su (2023). Understanding the Effect of Different Glucose Concentrations in the Oligotrophic Bacterium Bacillus subtilis BS-G1 Through Transcriptomics Analysis. Microorganisms, 11(10); 2401.
Christgen, B., M. Spurr, E. M. Milner, P. Izadi, C. McCann, E. Yu, T. Curtis, K. Scott, and I. M. Head (2023). Does Pre-Enrichment of Anodes With Acetate to Select for Geobacter spp. Enhance Performance of Microbial Fuel Cells When Switched to More Complex Substrates? Frontiers in Microbiology, 14; 1–12.
Feidenhans’l, A. A., Y. N. Regmi, C. Wei, D. Xia, J. Kibsgaard, and L. A. King (2024). Precious Metal Free Hydrogen Evolution Catalyst Design and Application. Chemical Reviews, 124(9); 5617–5667.
Garbini, G. L., A. Barra Caracciolo, and P. Grenni (2023). Electroactive Bacteria in Natural Ecosystems and Their Applications in Microbial Fuel Cells for Bioremediation: A Review. Microorganisms, 11(5); 1255.
Gheibi, M., R. Moezzi, M. Khaleghiabbasabadi, H. Taghavian, and K. Dhoska (2023). Intelligent Estimation of Total Suspended Solids (TSS) in Wastewater Treatment Plants Utilizing Non-Linear Regression Analysis. Journal of Transactions in Systems Engineering, 1; 50–55.
Guan, X., X. Zhong, Y. Lu, X. Du, R. Jia, H. Li, and M. Zhang (2021). Changes of Soybean Protein During Tofu Processing. Foods, 10(7); 1–16.
Hajar, I., M. Fadarina, Zamhari, and S. Yuliati (2021). Tofu Industrial Wastewater Treatment by Electrocoagulation Method. In Proceedings of the 4th Forum in Research, Science, and Technology (FIRST-T1-T2-2020), volume 7, pages 41–46.
Haque, M. M., M. K. Mosharaf, M. A. Haque, M. Z. H. Tanvir, and M. K. Alam (2021). Biofilm Formation, Production of Matrix Compounds and Biosorption of Copper, Nickel and Lead by Different Bacterial Strains. Frontiers in Microbiology, 12(June); 1–19.
Ishaq, A., M. I. M. Said, S. B. Azman, A. A. Dandajeh, G. S. Lemar, and Z. T. Jagun (2024). Utilization of Microbial Fuel Cells as a Dual Approach for Landfill Leachate Treatment and Power Production: A Review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(29); 41683–41733.
Karamzadeh, M., M. Kadivarian, P. Mahmoodi, S. S. Asefi, and A. Taghipour (2023). Modeling and Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Carbon Source on the Performance of Tubular Microbial Fuel Cell. Scientific Reports, 13(1); 1–8.
Kariyasa, I. K. (2021). Food Consumption Bulletin. Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Indonesia, 12(1); 32–43.
Kato, S. and Y. Kansha (2024). Comprehensive Review of Industrial Wastewater Treatment Techniques. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(39); 51064–51097.
Kyriazis, A., G. Aggelis, and A. Lianou (2025). Pomegranate Residues as Fermentation Feedstock for Bioethanol Production: Process Design and Characterization. Carbon Resources Conversion; 100338.
Mahene, W. L., T. Kivevele, and R. Machunda (2023). The Role of Textural Properties and Surface Chemistry of Activated Carbon Support in Catalytic Deoxygenation of Triglycerides Into Renewable Diesel. Catalysis Communications, 181; 106737.
Mahmoodzadeh, F., N. Navidjouy, S. Alizadeh, and M. Rahimnejad (2023). Investigation of Microbial Fuel Cell Performance Based on the Nickel Thin Film Modified Electrodes. Scientific Reports, 13(1); 1–13.
Mecheri, B., R. Gokhale, C. Santoro, M. A. Costa De Oliveira, A. D’epifanio, S. Licoccia, A. Serov, K. Artyushkova, and P. Atanassov (2018). Oxygen Reduction Reaction Electrocatalysts Derived From Iron Salt and Benzimidazole and Aminobenzimidazole Precursors and Their Application in Microbial Fuel Cell Cathodes. ACS Applied Energy Materials, 1(10); 5755–5765.
Misto, Siswanto, T. Mulyono, Sutisna, and D. D. Alawiyah (2024). Booster Circuit for Harvesting Renewable Energy Based on Bioelectric Microbial Fuel Cells Whose Power Can Be Adjusted. In BIO Web of Conferences, volume 101, page 01006.
Nawaz, A., I. ul Haq, K. Qaisar, B. Gunes, S. I. Raja, K. Mohyuddin, and H. Amin (2022). Microbial Fuel Cells: Insight Into Simultaneous Wastewater Treatment and Bioelectricity Generation. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 161; 357–373.
Ncube, A., J. Cocker, D. Ellis, and G. Fiorentino (2021). Biogas From Source Separated Organic Waste Within a Circular and Life Cycle Perspective: A Case Study in Ontario, Canada. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators, 11; 1–12.
Ngabala, F. J. and J. K. Emmanuel (2024). Potential Substrates for Biogas Production Through Anaerobic Digestion—An Alternative Energy Source. Heliyon, 10(23); e40632.
Niju, S., V. Shruthi, and K. Priyadharshini (2025). Comprehensive Insights Into Biological and Bio-Electrochemical Treatment of the Sago Industry Wastewater: Challenges and Future Perspectives. Sustainable Chemistry for the Environment, 10; 100242.
Obileke, K. C., H. Onyeaka, E. L. Meyer, and N. Nwokolo (2021). Microbial Fuel Cells, a Renewable Energy Technology for Bio-Electricity Generation: A Mini-Review. Electrochemistry Communications, 125; 107003.
Quijano, L., R. Rodrigues, D. Fischer, J. D. Tovar-Castro, A. Payne, L. Navone, Y. Hu, H. Yan, P. Pinmanee, E. Poon, J. H. Yang, and E. Barro (2024). Bacterial Cellulose Cookbook: A Systematic Review on Sustainable and Cost-Effective Substrates. Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts, 9; 379–409.
Rinaldi, W., A. Abubakar, R. F. Rahmi, and S. Silmina (2018). Tofu Wastewater Treatment by Sediment Microbial Fuel Cells. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, volume 334, page 012068.
Rozaki, Z. (2021). Food Security Challenges and Opportunities in Indonesia Post COVID-19. In Advances in Food Security and Sustainability, volume 6. Elsevier, pages 119–168.
Satar, I., W. R. W. Daud, B. H. Kim, M. R. Somalu, M. Ghasemi, M. H. A. Bakar, T. Jafary, and S. N. Timmiati (2018). Performance of Titanium–Nickel (Ti/Ni) and Graphite Felt–Nickel (GF/Ni) Electrodeposited by Ni as Alternative Cathodes for Microbial Fuel Cells. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 89; 67–76.
Satar, I., A. Permadi, and S. Latifatunnajib (2021). Microbial Enrichment Process in the Anode of Microbial Fuel Cell System Using Tofu Wastewater (TWW) Anaerobic Sludge. ECOTROPHIC: Jurnal Ilmu Lingkungan (Journal of Environmental Science), 15(2); 204–212.
Satar, I., M. M. Sirajuddin, A. Permadi, and S. Latifatunnajib (2023). Tofu Wastewater (TWW) Treatment and Hydrogen (H2) Production by Using a Microbial Electrolysis Cell (MEC) System. Indonesian Journal of Environmental Management and Sustainability, 7(1); 13–19.
Setianingsih, N. I., D. Widyakusuma, and Nilawati (2015). The Treatment of High Salinity Waste Water With Activated Sludge System. Jurnal Riset Teknologi Pencegahan Pencemaran Industri, 6(2); 45–50.
Shen, X., Y. Xu, L. Yin, J. Cheng, D. Yin, R. Zhao, Y. Dai, X. Hu, H. Hou, K. Qian, X. Pan, and Y. Liu (2023). Tofu Whey Wastewater as a Beneficial Supplement to Poultry Farming: Improving Production Performance and Protecting Against Salmonella Infection. Foods, 12(1); 79.
Singh, B. J., A. Chakraborty, and R. Sehgal (2023). A Systematic Review of Industrial Wastewater Management: Evaluating Challenges and Enablers. Journal of Environmental Management, 348; 119230.
Sonawane, J. M., R. Mahadevan, A. Pandey, and J. Greener (2022). Recent Progress in Microbial Fuel Cells Using Substrates From Diverse Sources. Heliyon, 8(12); e12353.
Sun, S., Y. Ding, M. Liu, M. Xian, and G. Zhao (2020). Comparison of Glucose, Acetate and Ethanol as Carbon Resource for Production of Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate) and Other Acetyl-CoA Derivatives. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 8; 1–13.
Tauk, M., P. Sistat, R. Habchi, M. Cretin, F. Zaviska, and M. Bechelany (2025). Exploring Flow-Electrode Capacitive Deionization: An Overview and New Insights. Desalination, 597; 118392.
Wagiman, W., I. R. Ardaniswari, and W. P. Nugravianto (2020). Biogas Production From Tofu Waste to Improve the Environmental Performance of Tofu Industry. Agroindustrial Journal, 7(1); 459.
Yaqoob, A. A., M. N. Mohamad Ibrahim, S. Rodríguez Couto, and A. Ahmad (2021). Preparation, Characterization, and Application of Modified Carbonized Lignin as an Anode for Sustainable Microbial Fuel Cell. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 155; 49–60.
Yoon, H., K. Jo, K. J. Kim, and J. Yoon (2019). Effects of Characteristics of Cation Exchange Membrane on Desalination Performance of Membrane Capacitive Deionization. Desalination, 458; 116–121.
Authors
Satar, I., Uswatun Khasanah, Titisari Juwitaningtyas, Edy Herianto Majlan, Waled Abdo Ahmed, & Byung Hong Kim. (2025). Evaluation of Stainless-Steel Mesh 304 Cathode Performance in a Microbial Fuel Cell for Tofu Wastewater Treatment. Indonesian Journal of Environmental Management and Sustainability, 9(3), 134-142. https://doi.org/10.26554/ijems.2025.9.3.134-142
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