MODFLOW-Based Evaluation of Mine Drainage and Environmental Risks in the Kulon Progo Iron Sand Mining Area
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Keywords:
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Coastal Hydrogeology, Mining Drainage System, Kulon Progo Iron Sand, Groundwater Quality, Environmental Risks, Sustainable Management
Abstract
This study investigates the hydrogeological characteristics and mine drainage challenges of the iron sand mining area along the southern coast of Kulon Progo, Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The region is characterized by a shallow unconfined aquifer with high hydraulic conductivity (10?²–10?³ m/s), a groundwater table depth of only 0.5–3.0 m below ground surface, and close proximity to the Indian Ocean, all of which strongly influence mine drainage design and dewatering requirements. Hydrological analysis using the Gumbel Type I distribution estimated a 3-year return period rainfall of 153.30 mm/day with a rainfall intensity of 53.71 mm/h based on 10 years of rainfall data, although the relatively short dataset remains a limitation for extreme-value prediction accuracy. The required mine dewatering capacity was calculated at 55 m³/s with a 95% confidence interval of ±5.8 m³/s, including approximately 10 m³/s contributed by groundwater seepage. Dewatering operations pose several environmental risks, including groundwater table drawdown of 1.5–3.0 m, potential seawater intrusion, elevated total suspended solids (TSS) in runoff reaching 2.0 mg/L, and disruption of surrounding mangrove ecosystems. To support sustainable mining operations, this study recommends implementing targeted dewatering strategies supported by MODFLOW hydrogeological modeling, establishing real-time groundwater monitoring systems, conducting progressive reclamation, and ensuring compliance with Government Regulation No. 22/2021 concerning environmental quality standards.
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Aldrian, E. and R. Dwi Susanto (2003). Identification of Three Dominant Rainfall Regions Within Indonesia and Their Relationship to Sea Surface Temperature. *International Journal of Climatology*, 23(12); 1435–1452
Anwar, M. T., W. Hadikurniawati, E. Winarno, and W. Widiyatmoko (2020). Performance Comparison of Data Mining Techniques for Rain Prediction Models in Indonesia. In *2020 3rd International Seminar on Research of Information Technology and Intelligent Systems (ISRITI)*. IEEE, pages 83–88
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Bandara, K., K. Pabasara, L. Gunawardhana, J. Bamunawala, J. Sirisena, and L. Rajapakse (2025). Coupling Rainfall Intensity and Satellite-Derived Soil Moisture for Time of Concentration Prediction: A Data-Driven Hydrological Approach to Enhance Climate Responsiveness. *Hydrology*, 12(10); 264
Buurman, J. and V. Babovic (2016). Adaptation Pathways and Real Options Analysis: An Approach to Deep Uncertainty in Climate Change Adaptation Policies. *Policy and Society*, 35(2); 137–150
Chachadi, A. G. and J. P. Lobo-Ferreira (2021). Assessing Aquifer Vulnerability to Seawater Intrusion Using GALDIT Method: Part 2 – GALDIT Indicators Description. *COASTIN: A Coastal Policy Research Newsletter*, 4; 1–7
Chow, V. T., D. R. Maidment, and L. W. Mays (2021). *Applied Hydrology*. McGraw-Hill Education, 2 edition
Erftemeijer, P. L. A., B. Riegl, B. W. Hoeksema, and P. A. Todd (2012). Environmental Impacts of Dredging and Other Sediment Disturbances on Corals: A Review. *Marine Pollution Bulletin*, 64(9); 1737–1765
Fernandez, J. M., J. D. Meunier, S. Ouillon, B. Moreton, P. Douillet, and O. Grauby (2017). Dynamics of Suspended Sediments During a Dry Season and Their Consequences on Metal Transportation in a Coral Reef Lagoon Impacted by Mining Activities, New Caledonia. *Water*, 9(5); 338
Fetter, C. W. (2020). *Applied Hydrogeology*. Pearson Education, 5 edition
Flores, F., M. O. Hoogenboom, L. D. Smith, T. F. Cooper, D. Abrego, and A. P. Negri (2012). Chronic Exposure of Corals to Fine Sediments: Lethal and Sub-Lethal Impacts. *PLoS ONE*, 7(5); e37795
Gumi?ska, J., F. Plewa, A. Grodzicka, A. Gumi?ski, M. Rozmus, and D. Michalak (2021). Economic Analysis of the Application of the Technological System for Removing Suspended Solids from Mine Drainage Waters. *Energies*, 14(24); 8232
Haq, S., D. Prakasa, E. Putra, H. Hendrayana, and T. Igarashi (2011). Hydrogeology of an Open-pit Coal Mine in Tamiang Layang, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia: A Preliminary Groundwater Flow Modeling. *Indonesian Association Geologists (IAGI)*, July; 1–20
Harisuseno, D., S. Wahyuni, and Y. Dwirani (2020). Determination of an Appropriate Empirical Formulation for Estimating the Intensity Duration Frequency Curve. *Journal of Irrigation Engineering*, 11(1); 47–60
Hustrulid, W., M. Kuchta, and R. Martin (2013). *Open Pit Mine Planning & Design 1: Fundamentals*. CRC Press, 3 edition
Irzon, R. (2018). Komposisi Kimia Pasir Pantai Di Selatan Kulon Progo Dan Implikasi Terhadap Provenance. *Jurnal Geologi dan Sumberdaya Mineral*, 19(1); 31–45. (In Indonesian)
Kaikkonen, L., R. Venesjärvi, H. Nygård, and S. Kuikka (2018). Assessing the Impacts of Seabed Mineral Extraction in the Deep Sea and Coastal Marine Environments: Current Methods and Recommendations for Environmental Risk Assessment. *Marine Pollution Bulletin*, 135; 1183–1197
Kite, G. W. (2019). *Frequency and Risk Analyses in Hydrology*. Water Resources Publications, 4 edition
Labonté-Raymond, P. L., T. Pabst, B. Bussière, and É. Bresson (2020). Impact of Climate Change on Extreme Rainfall Events and Surface Water Management at Mine Waste Storage Facilities. *Journal of Hydrology*, 590; 125383
Michael, H. A., C. J. Russoniello, and L. A. Byron (2013). Global Assessment of Vulnerability to Sea Level Rise in Topography-Limited and Recharge-Limited Coastal Groundwater Systems. *Water Resources Research*, 49(4); 2228–2240
Mine Environment Neutral Drainage Program (2020). *MEND Manual Mine Drainage Control and Treatment*, volume 4. Natural Resources Canada
Ministry of Environment and Forestry Republic of Indonesia (2021). *Government Regulation No. 22 of 2021 on Environmental Protection and Management*. State Gazette of the Republic of Indonesia
Muzakir, N. A., N. Sunusi, and S. A. Thamrin (2023). Stochastic Model of the Annual Maximum Rainfall Series Using Probability Distributions. *Malaysian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences*, 19(5); 827–839
Naidoo, G. and K. Naidoo (2021). Salinity Exacerbates Oil Contamination Effects in Mangroves. *Environmental Science and Pollution Research*, 28(48); 68398–68406
Noviadi, Y. and D. Setiady (2020). Sedimentasi Pasir Sepanjang Pantai Kulon Progo, Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta [Sand Sedimentation Along the Coast of Kulon Progo, Special Region of Yogyakarta]. *Jurnal Geologi Kelautan*, 18(1); 63–72. (In Indonesian)
Osei, M. A., L. K. Amekudzi, A. Y. Omari-Sasu, E. I. Yamba, E. Quansah, J. N. A. Aryee, and K. Preko (2021). Estimation of the Return Periods of Maxima Rainfall and Floods at the Pra River Catchment, Ghana, West Africa Using the Gumbel Extreme Value Theory. *Heliyon*, 7(5); e06980
Parizi, E., S. M. Hosseini, B. Ataie-Ashtiani, and C. T. Simmons (2019). Vulnerability Mapping of Coastal Aquifers to Seawater Intrusion: Review, Development and Application. *Journal of Hydrology*, 570; 555–573
Post, V. E. A., G. J. Houben, and J. Van Engelen (2018). What Is the Ghijben-Herzberg Principle and Who Formulated It? *Hydrogeology Journal*, 26(6); 1801–1807
Punkkinen, H., L. Räsänen, U.-M. Mroueh, J. Korkealaakso, S. Luoma, T. Kaipainen, S. Backnäs, K. Turunen, K. Hentinen, A. Pasanen, S. Kauppi, B. Vehviläinen, and K. Krogerus (2016). *Guidelines for Mine Water Management*. [http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-951-38-8443-7](http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-951-38-8443-7)
Rahardjo, W., Sukandarrumidi, and H. M. D. Rosidi (2020). *Geological Map of Yogyakarta, Java, Scale 1:100,000*
Rahmi, H., D. Susetyo, and R. Juniah (2019). Utilization Study of Void Mine for Sustainable Environment of the Limestone Mining Sector at PT Semen Baturaja (Persero) Tbk. *Indonesian Journal of Environmental Management and Sustainability*, 3; 54–59
Rangel-Buitrago, N., W. Neal, O. Pilkey, and N. Longo (2023). The Global Impact of Sand Mining on Beaches and Dunes. *Ocean and Coastal Management*, 235; 106492
Rao, A. R. and K. H. Hamed (2019). *Flood Frequency Analysis*. CRC Press, 2 edition
Rendana, M., Y. Yandriani, P. A. Pitayati, M. Izzudin, and M. Lestari (2022). Assessment of Water Quality Status and Pollution Index in Musi River, South Sumatera, Indonesia. *Indonesian Journal of Environmental Management and Sustainability*, 6(4); 114–118
Rözer, V., S. Mehryar, and S. Surminski (2022). From Managing Risk to Increasing Resilience: A Review on the Development of Urban Flood Resilience, Its Assessment and the Implications for Decision Making. *Environmental Research Letters*, 17(12); 123006
Soemarto, C. D. (2018). *Engineering Hydrology*. Erlangga, 3 edition
Sosrodarsono, S. and K. Takeda (2018). *Hydrology for Irrigation*. Pradnya Paramita, 8 edition
Stedinger, J. R., R. M. Vogel, and E. Foufoula-Georgiou (2022). Frequency Analysis of Extreme Events. In D. R. Maidment, editor, *Handbook of Hydrology*. McGraw-Hill, pages 18.1–18.66
Suripin (2020). *Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems*. Andi Offset, revised edition
Suter, G. W. (2008). Ecological Risk Assessment in the United States Environmental Protection Agency: A Historical Overview. *Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management*, 4(3); 285–289
Thanh Giao, N., P. Kim Anh, and H. Thi Hong Nhien (2021). Evaluating Groundwater Quality in Bac Lieu Province Using Multivariate Statistical Method and Groundwater Quality Index. *Indonesian Journal of Environmental Management and Sustainability*, 5(4); 129–135
Todd, D. K. and L. W. Mays (2018). *Groundwater Hydrology*. John Wiley & Sons, 3 edition
Tri Aditya, M. and H. Susilo (2025). Analysis of the Suitability of Frequency Distribution of Rainfall Data and Rainfall Return Period at PT. X, Kutai Kartanegara Regency, East Kalimantan. *West Science Interdisciplinary Studies*, 3(5); 887–902
Triatmodjo, B. (2020). *Hidrologi Terapan*. Beta Offset, 3 edition. (In Indonesian)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998). *Guidelines for Ecological Risk Assessment*. Technical Report EPA/630/R-95/002F, Washington, DC, USA
Wali, S. U., A. A. Usman, A. B. Usman, U. Abdullahi, I. U. Mohammed, and J. M. Hayatu (2024). Impact of Geology on Hydrogeological and Hydrochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in Tropical Environments: A Narrative Review. *International Journal of Hydrology*, 8(6); 202–221
Werner, A. D., M. Bakker, V. E. A. Post, A. Vandenbohede, C. Lu, B. Ataie-Ashtiani, C. T. Simmons, and D. A. Barry (2013). Seawater Intrusion Processes, Investigation and Management: Recent Advances and Future Challenges. *Advances in Water Resources*, 51; 3–26
Younger, P. L., S. A. Banwart, and R. S. Hedin (2018). *Mine Water: Hydrology, Pollution, Remediation*, volume 5. Springer
Zapico, I., J. B. Laronne, C. Meixide, L. Sánchez Castillo, and J. F. Martín Duque (2021). Evaluation of Sedimentation Pond Performance for a Cleaner Water Production from an Open Pit Mine at the Edge of the Alto Tajo Natural Park. *Journal of Cleaner Production*, 280; 124408
Authors
Andrawina, Luliana, & Lestari, V. (2026). MODFLOW-Based Evaluation of Mine Drainage and Environmental Risks in the Kulon Progo Iron Sand Mining Area. Indonesian Journal of Environmental Management and Sustainability, 10(3), 189-203. https://doi.org/10.26554/ijems.2026.10.3.189-203
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