Performance of Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands (FWS-CWs) using Water Jasmine (Echinodorus palaefolius) in Removing COD and TDS from Domestic Wastewater
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Keywords:
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Domestic Wastewater, Constructed Wetlands, Echinodorus palaefolius, COD, TDS
Abstract
This study evaluated the reduction of chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total dissolved solids (TDS) in domestic wastewater using water jasmine (Echinodorus palaefolius) in a free water surface constructed wetland (FWS-CW) system. We characterized the influent wastewater, assessed the acclimatization of E. palaefolius to undiluted domestic wastewater, and quantified the effects of plant density and observation time on COD and TDS removal. The experimental campaign comprised wastewater sampling, reactor fabrication, plant acclimatization, batch treatment, and analyses of COD and TDS. Removal efficiencies were computed and the data analyzed by two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD post-hoc test. The initial wastewater contained 275.88 mg/L COD and 286 ppm TDS. Echinodorus palaefolius adapted successfully to the wastewater and reached maximum removal efficiencies of 86.04% for COD and 12.41% for TDS in the 12-plant reactor on Day 12. The two-way ANOVA showed significant main effects of plant density and observation time on both parameters (p < 0.05), and Tukey’s HSD indicated that the presence of E. palaefolius significantly improved TDS removal compared with the unplanted control, although differences among the 4-, 8-, and 12-plant reactors were not statistically significant. These findings indicate that even moderate plant densities are effective for reducing COD and TDS in tropical domestic wastewater treated with FWS-CWs.
References
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Ayuningtyas, E., N. Muyasaroh, H. B. Hermawan, I. A. AS, R. Susetyaningsih, and Jumiati (2023). Pengolahan Limbah Domestik Secara Fitoremediasi Sistem Constructed Wetlands dengan Tanaman Hias Iris (Iris pseuadacorus) dan Melati Air (Echinodorus palifolius). Jurnal Rekayasa Lingkungan, 23(2); 80–87 (In Indonesia)
Badan Pusat Statistik (2020). Statistik Lingkungan Hidup Indonesia (SLHI) 2020. (In Indonesia)
Chu, J. and Z. Liao (2024). Optical and Molecular Characteristics of Urban Wastewater Dissolved Organic Matter: Insights Into Their Correlations. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, 10(10); 2559–2576
Dissanayaka, D. M. S. H. and S. G. V. D. H. Gunasekara (2022). Use of Constructed Wetland Systems for Greywater Treatment: A Review. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development, 6(4)
Domínguez-Solís, D., M. C. Martínez-Rodríguez, H. G. Ramírez-Escamilla, L. E. Campos-Villegas, and R. Domínguez-Solís (2025). Constructed Wetlands as a Decentralized Treatment Option for Domestic Wastewater: A Systematic Review (2015–2024). Water, 17(10); 1451
Dwi Putri, A., F. Indah Fajarwati, and J. Rachmadansyah (2021). Analisis Parameter Fisika dan Kimia Outlet IPAL Komunal Domestik Dusun Sukunan. Indonesian Journal of Chemical Research, 6(2); 98–110 (In Indonesia)
Gaballah, M. S., H. Yousefyani, and R. W. Lammers (2024). From Literature to Action: Analyzing How Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal Responds to Different Design Factors in Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands. ACS ES&T Engineering, 4(12); 2974–2986
Gunes, K., B. Tuncsiper, S. Ayaz, and A. Drizo (2012). The Ability of Free Water Surface Constructed Wetland System to Treat High Strength Domestic Wastewater: A Case Study for the Mediterranean. Ecological Engineering, 44; 278–284
Kamaruzaman, N. A., M. H. Jaafar, M. Mohideen, and S. Fatinathan (2023). Effects of Treated and Untreated Sludge Applications on Human Health, the Environment and Other Ecological Factors. In Green Energy and Technology. pages 23–42
Khan, M. E., A. Mohammad, W. Ali, and A. A. Sharwani (2022). Chemically Modified Carbon Nanotubes in Removal of Textiles Effluents. In Chemically Modified Carbon Nanotubes for Commercial Applications. pages 151–167
Kim, H. K., T. I. Jang, S. M. Kim, and S. W. Park (2014). Impact of Domestic Wastewater Irrigation on Heavy Metal Contamination in Soil and Vegetables. Environmental Earth Sciences, 73(5); 2377–2383
Koul, B., D. Yadav, S. Singh, M. Kumar, and M. Song (2022). Insights into the Domestic Wastewater Treatment (DWWT) Regimes: A Review. Water, 14(21); 3542
Muoghalu, C. C., P. A. Owusu, S. Lebu, A. Nakagiri, S. Semiyaga, and O. T. Iorhemen (2023). Biochar as a Novel Technology for Treatment of Onsite Domestic Wastewater: A Critical Review. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 11; 1095920
Novita, E., A. Agustin, and H. Andiananta (2021). Pengendalian Potensi Pencemaran Air Limbah Rumah Pemotongan Ayam Menggunakan Metode Fitoremediasi dengan Beberapa Jenis Tanaman Air. Agroteknika, 4(2); 106–119 (In Indonesia)
Panrare, A., T. Tondee, and P. Sohsalam (2016). Effect of Plant Density in Constructed Wetland on Domestic Wastewater Treating Efficiency. International Journal of Applied and Physical Sciences, 2(1); 7–12
Parab, C., A. V. Patel, K. D. Yadav, and V. Prajapati (2025). Evaluating Constructed Wetlands with Water Hyacinth for Greywater Treatment: Media Comparison and ANN-Based Predictive Modelling. Bioresource Technology Reports, 30; 102112
Perdana, M. C., H. B. Sutanto, and G. Prihatmo (2018). Vertical Subsurface Flow (VSSF) Constructed Wetland for Domestic Wastewater Treatment. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 148(1); 012025
Qomariyah, S., A. H. Ramelan, P. Setyono, and Sobriyah (2021). Initial Stage in Designing Household Constructed Wetlands: Selection of a Suitable Aquatic Plant. International Journal on Advanced Science, Engineering and Information Technology, 11(3); 1014–1021
Ratnawati, R., I. Nurhayati, I. N. Rohim, and V. Andriani (2024). Phytoremediation of Landfill Leachate Using Chlorophytum comosum, Echinodorus palaefolius, and Hippochaetes lymenalis. Journal of Ecological Engineering, 25(12); 124–135
Safira Koesputri, A. and H. Lanang Dangiran (2016). Pengaruh Variasi Lama Kontak Tanaman Melati Air (Echinodorus palaefolius) dengan Sistem Subsurface Flow Wetlands Terhadap Penurunan Kadar BOD, COD dan Fosfat dalam Limbah Cair Laundry. Jurnal Kesehatan Masyarakat, 4(4); 771–778 (In Indonesia)
Saha, S., M. B. Roy, R. Mandal, and P. K. Roy (2025). Hybrid Constructed Wetlands for Multi-Source Wastewater Treatment: Performance Analysis and Design Insights from Urban and Industrial Wastewater Sources. Next Research, 2(3); 100649
Sai Krishna, R. V. M., H. A. Khan, R. Vamsi, and S. K. Khaja Sameer (2023). Utilization of Treated Wastewater in Concrete. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1280(1); 012016
Sané, N., M. Mbengue, A. Laffite, S. Stoll, J. Poté, and P. Le Coustumer (2022). Development of a Process for Domestic Wastewater Treatment Using Moringa oleifera for Pathogens and Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria Inhibition under Tropical Conditions. Water, 14(15); 2379
Sangeetha, R., R. Rajamathanghi, G. Sowmiya, G. Jahnaveswari, P. Suresh Babu, and A. Sai Ramesh (2023). Feasibility and Performance Evaluation of Mentha Aquatica in Treating Domestic Wastewater. In Environmental Science and Engineering. pages 87–98
Shen, Y., J. Li, R. Gu, L. Yue, X. Zhan, and B. Xing (2017). Phenanthrene-Triggered Chlorosis is Caused by Elevated Chlorophyll Degradation and Leaf Moisture. Environmental Pollution, 220; 1311–1321
Sun, H., Y. Zhou, and C. Jiang (2024). Regulating Denitrification in Constructed Wetlands: The Synergistic Role of Radial Oxygen Loss and Root Exudates. Water, 16(24); 3706
Syamlal, C. A., A. George, and D. Sayantan (2024). Phytoremediation: An Eco-Friendly Solution for Environmental Contamination. International Journal of Advanced Research in Science, Communication and Technology; 553–577
Thakur, T. K., M. P. Barya, J. Dutta, P. Mukherjee, A. Thakur, and S. L. Swamy (2023). Integrated Phytobial Remediation of Dissolved Pollutants from Domestic Wastewater through Constructed Wetlands. Water, 15(22); 3877
Ur Rahman, S., A. Qin, M. Zain, Z. Mushtaq, F. Mehmood, L. Riaz, et al. (2024). Pb Uptake, Accumulation, and Translocation in Plants: Plant Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Response: A Review. Heliyon, 10(6); e27724
Vishwakarma, S. and D. Dharmendra (2024). Evaluating Domestic Wastewater Treatment Efficiency of Field Scale Hybrid Flow Constructed Wetland in Series. Pollution, 10(1); 392–403
Wang, B., L. Wu, R. Wang, J. Huo, Z. Yi, Z. Wang, and H. Zhang (2024). Rhizosphere Microorganisms in Subsurface Flow Garden Constructed Wetland and Their Influence on Nitrogen Removal Efficiency. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 235(7); 428
Yang, Y., Y. Hu, A. Duan, X. C. Wang, H. H. Ngo, and Y. Y. Li (2021). Characterization of Preconcentrated Domestic Wastewater Toward Efficient Bioenergy Recovery. Bioresource Technology, 319; 124144
Authors
Fajar, M., Dinda Yuliana Nola Ujung, Erlina Kurnianingtyas, & Tarmizi Taher. (2026). Performance of Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands (FWS-CWs) using Water Jasmine (Echinodorus palaefolius) in Removing COD and TDS from Domestic Wastewater. Indonesian Journal of Environmental Management and Sustainability, 10(3), 214-227. https://doi.org/10.26554/ijems.2026.10.3.214-227
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