Phytoremediation of Fe(III) Using Pistia stratiotes L. - Efficiency and Kinetic Insights
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Keywords:
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Fe(III), Heavy Metals, Phytoremediation, Pistia stratiotes L
Abstract
The increasing presence of heavy metals (dense metallic elements, such as iron, which can be toxic at high levels) in industrial wastewater poses a substantial threat to environmental and human health, requiring the development of effective, sustainable treatment solutions. This study analyzes the potential of Pistia stratiotes L. (also known as Kiambang, a floating aquatic plant) as a phytoremediation agent (an organism that removes pollutants from the environment) for extracting Iron (III) (the trivalent, oxidized form of iron) from synthetic wastewater (water with artificially added contaminants). The experiment was conducted in batch reactors (containers where reactions occur in set amounts) under controlled conditions, with modifications to the number of plants and contact length (the duration plants are exposed to contaminated water) to evaluate the effectiveness of iron removal. Iron concentrations were monitored spectrophotometrically (by measuring the amount of light absorbed by sample solutions) over time, and the phytoremediation kinetics (the rate and mechanism of pollutant removal) were investigated using zero, first, and second-order kinetic models (mathematical approaches to describe how quickly reactions occur). Results indicated that Pistia stratiotes L. was highly effective at reducing Fe (III) levels, achieving removal efficiencies exceeding 99% under optimal conditions-specifically with 10 plants and 5 days of contact time. Kinetic analysis indicated that the second-order model provided the best fit, suggesting a chemisorption-dominated process (removal primarily involves chemical bonding between the plant and iron ions). These findings emphasize the potential of Pistia stratiotes L. as a green and efficient solution for Fe (III) removal from wastewater and offer significant insight into optimizing phytoremediation system design for industrial applications.
References
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Ntakiyiruta, P., B. G. H. Briton, G. Nsavyimana, K. Adouby, D. Nahimana, G. Ntakimazi, and L. Reinert (2022). Optimization of the Phytoremediation Conditions of Wastewater in Post-Treatment by Eichhornia crassipes and Pistia stratiotes: Kinetic Model for Pollutants Removal. Environmental Technology, 43(12); 1805–1818
Obinnaa, I. B. and E. C. Ebere (2019). Water Pollution by Heavy Metal and Organic Pollutants: Brief Review of Sources, Effects and Progress on Remediation with Aquatic Plants. Analytical Methods in Environmental Chemistry Journal, 2(3); 5–38
Oktaviani, L., W. Nilandita, and D. Suprayogi (2020). Fitoremediasi Tanaman Apu-Apu (Pistia stratiotes) terhadap Kadar Logam Zn Berdasarkan Variasi Jumlah Tanaman. Jurnal Teknik Lingkungan, 6(1); 44–52 (in Indonesia)
Pan, J., M. Miao, X. Lin, J. Shen, B. Van Der Bruggen, and C. Gao (2017). Production of Aldonic Acids by Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 56(27); 7824–7829
Pang, Y. L., Y. Y. Quek, S. Lim, and S. H. Shuit (2023). Review on Phytoremediation Potential of Floating Aquatic Plants for Heavy Metals: A Promising Approach. Sustainability, 15(2); 1290
Pangeran, A. B., M. A. Afandy, and F. D. I. Sawali (2023). Efficiency of FeSO4·7H2O as a Coagulant on Chromium Hexavalent Removal Using Coagulation-Flocculation Process: Optimization Using Response Surface Methodology. Jurnal Teknik Kimia dan Lingkungan, 7(2); 123–133
Rakanovi?, M., A. Vukojevi?, M. M. Savanovi?, S. Armakovi?, S. Pelemiš, F. Živi?, S. Sladojevi?, and S. J. Armakovi? (2022). Zeolites As Adsorbents and Photocatalysts for Removal of Dyes from the Aqueous Environment. Molecules, 27(19); 6582
Ratna, K. D. K. and I. Slamet (2020). The Effectiveness of Pistia stratiotes as Phytoremediation Agents in Reducing Lead (Pb) Levels in Batik Household Industrial Wastewater in Bakaran Village, Central Java-Indonesia. Asian Journal of Biology, 10(4); 68–73
Rodrigues, A. C. D., M. V. d. C. Rocha, E. S. A. Lima, C. F. d. Pinho, A. M. d. Santos, F. S. d. Santos, and N. M. B. d. Amaral Sobrinho (2020). Potential of Water Lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.) for Phytoremediation: Physiological Responses and Kinetics of Zinc Uptake. International Journal of Phytoremediation, 22(10); 1019–1027
Samal, K. and R. R. Dash (2024). Experiments and Modeling to Develop a Pistia stratiotes Based Floating Vegetated System (FVS) for the Removal of Heavy Metals (pb, Zn, Cr, Cu, Ni). Science of the Total Environment, 926; 171981
Samal, K. and S. Trivedi (2020). A Statistical and Kinetic Approach to Develop a Floating Bed for the Treatment of Wastewater. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 8(5); 104102
Sawali, F. D. I., F. Setyawan, M. A. Afandy, and M. Mustikaningrum (2024). Cr (VI) Removal from Aqueos Solution by Coagulation-Adsorption Integrated System. Indonesian Journal of Chemical Science, 13(1); 23–30
Sirotiak, M., A. Bartošová, and L. Blinová (2014). UV-VIS Spectrophotometric Determinations of Selected Elements in Modelled Aqueous Solutions. Journal of Environmental Protection, Safety, Education and Management, 2(3); 75–87
Šostar-Turk, S., I. Petrini?, and M. Simoni? (2005). Laundry Wastewater Treatment Using Coagulation and Membrane Filtration. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 44(2); 185–196
Tang, K. H. D., S. H. Awa, and T. Hadibarata (2020). Phytoremediation of Copper-Contaminated Water with Pistia stratiotes in Surface and Distilled Water. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 231(12); 573
Wibowo, Y. G., A. T. Nugraha, and A. Rohman (2023). Phytoremediation of Several Wastewater Sources Using Pistia Stratiotes and Eichhornia Crassipes in Indonesia. Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring & Management, 20; 100781
Yao, H., W. Shi, X. Wang, J. Li, M. Chen, J. Li, D. Chen, L. Zhou, and Z. Deng (2023). The Root-Associated Fusarium Isolated Based on Fungal Community Analysis Improves Phytoremediation Efficiency of Ricinus communis L. In Multi Metal-Contaminated Soils. Chemosphere, 324; 138377
Zahari, N. Z., N. S. Fong, F. N. Cleophas, and S. A. Rahim (2021). The Potential of Pistia stratiotes in the Phytoremediation of Selected Heavy Metals from Simulated Wastewater. International Journal of Technology, 12(3); 613–624
Zou, L., S. Zhang, D. Duan, X. Liang, J. Shi, J. Xu, and X. Tang (2018). Effects of Ferrous Sulfate Amendment and Water Management on Rice Growth and Metal(loid) Accumulation in Arsenic and Lead Co-Contaminated Soil. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(9); 8888–8902
Ali, M., A. Aslam, A. Qadeer, S. Javied, N. Nisar, N. Hassan, A. Hussain, B. Ali, R. Iqbal, T. Chaudhary, et al. (2024). Domestic Wastewater Treatment by Pistia stratiotes in Constructed Wetland. Scientific Reports, 14(1); 7553
Ali, S., Z. Abbas, M. Rizwan, I. E. Zaheer, ?. Yava?, A. Ünay, M. M. Abdel-Daim, M. Bin-Jumah, M. Hasanuzzaman, and D. Kalderis (2020). Application of Floating Aquatic Plants in Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals Polluted Water: A Review. Sustainability, 12(5); 1927
Asif, M. B., W. E. Price, Z. Fida, A. Tufail, T. Ren, and F. I. Hai (2021). Acid Mine Drainage and Sewage Impacted Groundwater Treatment by Membrane Distillation: Organic Micropollutant and Metal Removal and Membrane Fouling. Journal of Environmental Management, 291; 112708
Ayani, S. (2022). Efisiensi Pengolahan Limbah Cair Tailing Bauksit Menggunakan Tumbuhan Kayu Apu (Pistia stratiotes). JURLIS: Jurnal Rekayasa Lingkungan Tropis Teknik Lingkungan Universitas Tanjungpura, 3(1); 45–55 (in Indonesia)
Budihardjo, M. A., Y. G. Wibowo, B. S. Ramadan, M. A. Serunting, E. Yohana, et al. (2021). Mercury Removal Using Modified Activated Carbon of Peat Soil and Coal in Simulated Landfill Leachate. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 24; 102022
Coelho, D. G., V. M. da Silva, A. A. P. Gomes Filho, L. A. Oliveira, H. H. de Araújo, F. dos Santos Farnese, W. L. Araújo, and J. A. de Oliveira (2023). Bioaccumulation and Physiological Traits Qualify Pistia stratiotes as a Suitable Species for Phytoremediation and Bioindication of Iron-Contaminated Water. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 446; 130701
Ergönül, M. B., D. Nassouhi, and S. Atasa?un (2020). Modeling of the Bioaccumulative Efficiency of Pistia stratiotes Exposed to Pb, Cd, and Pb+ Cd Mixtures in Nutrient-Poor Media. International Journal of Phytoremediation, 22(2); 201–209
Haeril, H., F. D. I. Sawali, and M. A. Afandy (2024). Phytoremediation of Cr(VI) from Aqueous Solution by Pistia stratiotes L.: Efficiency and Kinetic Models. Jurnal Teknik Kimia dan Lingkungan, 8(1); 25–35
Hidalgo-Carrillo, J., R. C. Estévez-Toledano, F. J. López-Tenllado, F. M. Bautista, F. J. Urbano, and A. Marinas (2021). Fourth Generation Synthesis of Solketal by Glycerol Acetalization with Acetone: A Solar-Light Photocatalytic Approach. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 125; 297–303
Huang, C. and T. Xu (2006). Electrodialysis with Bipolar Membranes for Sustainable Development. Environmental Science & Technology, 40(17); 5233–5243
Hubbe, M. A., S. Azizian, and S. Douven (2019). Implications of Apparent Pseudo-Second-Order Adsorption Kinetics onto Cellulosic Materials: A Review. BioResources, 14(3); 7582–7626
Khan, S. N., L. Anjum, A. Arshad, S. Ali, M. Aleem, and A. Nasir (2025). Nature-Based Solution for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Using Phytoremediation with Floating Plants. Water, 17(7); 1080
López-Luna, J., L. E. Ramírez-Montes, S. Martinez-Vargas, A. I. Martínez, O. F. Mijangos-Ricardez, M. d. C. A. González-Chávez, R. Carrillo-González, F. A. Solís-Domínguez, M. d. C. Cuevas-Díaz, and V. Vázquez-Hipólito (2019). Linear and Nonlinear Kinetic and Isotherm Adsorption Models for Arsenic Removal by Manganese Ferrite Nanoparticles. SN Applied Sciences, 1(8); 950
Lou, X.-Y., Z. Xu, A.-P. Bai, M. Resina-Gallego, and Z.-G. Ji (2020). Separation and Recycling of Concentrated Heavy Metal Wastewater by Tube Membrane Distillation Integrated with Crystallization. Membranes, 10(1); 19
Nainggolan, R., R. Perangin-angin, E. Simarmata, and A. F. Tarigan (2019). Improved the Performance of the KMeans Cluster Using the Sum of Squared Error (SSE) Optimized by Using the Elbow Method. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series, volume 1361. IOP Publishing, page 012015
Ntakiyiruta, P., B. G. H. Briton, G. Nsavyimana, K. Adouby, D. Nahimana, G. Ntakimazi, and L. Reinert (2022). Optimization of the Phytoremediation Conditions of Wastewater in Post-Treatment by Eichhornia crassipes and Pistia stratiotes: Kinetic Model for Pollutants Removal. Environmental Technology, 43(12); 1805–1818
Obinnaa, I. B. and E. C. Ebere (2019). Water Pollution by Heavy Metal and Organic Pollutants: Brief Review of Sources, Effects and Progress on Remediation with Aquatic Plants. Analytical Methods in Environmental Chemistry Journal, 2(3); 5–38
Oktaviani, L., W. Nilandita, and D. Suprayogi (2020). Fitoremediasi Tanaman Apu-Apu (Pistia stratiotes) terhadap Kadar Logam Zn Berdasarkan Variasi Jumlah Tanaman. Jurnal Teknik Lingkungan, 6(1); 44–52 (in Indonesia)
Pan, J., M. Miao, X. Lin, J. Shen, B. Van Der Bruggen, and C. Gao (2017). Production of Aldonic Acids by Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 56(27); 7824–7829
Pang, Y. L., Y. Y. Quek, S. Lim, and S. H. Shuit (2023). Review on Phytoremediation Potential of Floating Aquatic Plants for Heavy Metals: A Promising Approach. Sustainability, 15(2); 1290
Pangeran, A. B., M. A. Afandy, and F. D. I. Sawali (2023). Efficiency of FeSO4·7H2O as a Coagulant on Chromium Hexavalent Removal Using Coagulation-Flocculation Process: Optimization Using Response Surface Methodology. Jurnal Teknik Kimia dan Lingkungan, 7(2); 123–133
Rakanovi?, M., A. Vukojevi?, M. M. Savanovi?, S. Armakovi?, S. Pelemiš, F. Živi?, S. Sladojevi?, and S. J. Armakovi? (2022). Zeolites As Adsorbents and Photocatalysts for Removal of Dyes from the Aqueous Environment. Molecules, 27(19); 6582
Ratna, K. D. K. and I. Slamet (2020). The Effectiveness of Pistia stratiotes as Phytoremediation Agents in Reducing Lead (Pb) Levels in Batik Household Industrial Wastewater in Bakaran Village, Central Java-Indonesia. Asian Journal of Biology, 10(4); 68–73
Rodrigues, A. C. D., M. V. d. C. Rocha, E. S. A. Lima, C. F. d. Pinho, A. M. d. Santos, F. S. d. Santos, and N. M. B. d. Amaral Sobrinho (2020). Potential of Water Lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.) for Phytoremediation: Physiological Responses and Kinetics of Zinc Uptake. International Journal of Phytoremediation, 22(10); 1019–1027
Samal, K. and R. R. Dash (2024). Experiments and Modeling to Develop a Pistia stratiotes Based Floating Vegetated System (FVS) for the Removal of Heavy Metals (pb, Zn, Cr, Cu, Ni). Science of the Total Environment, 926; 171981
Samal, K. and S. Trivedi (2020). A Statistical and Kinetic Approach to Develop a Floating Bed for the Treatment of Wastewater. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 8(5); 104102
Sawali, F. D. I., F. Setyawan, M. A. Afandy, and M. Mustikaningrum (2024). Cr (VI) Removal from Aqueos Solution by Coagulation-Adsorption Integrated System. Indonesian Journal of Chemical Science, 13(1); 23–30
Sirotiak, M., A. Bartošová, and L. Blinová (2014). UV-VIS Spectrophotometric Determinations of Selected Elements in Modelled Aqueous Solutions. Journal of Environmental Protection, Safety, Education and Management, 2(3); 75–87
Šostar-Turk, S., I. Petrini?, and M. Simoni? (2005). Laundry Wastewater Treatment Using Coagulation and Membrane Filtration. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 44(2); 185–196
Tang, K. H. D., S. H. Awa, and T. Hadibarata (2020). Phytoremediation of Copper-Contaminated Water with Pistia stratiotes in Surface and Distilled Water. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 231(12); 573
Wibowo, Y. G., A. T. Nugraha, and A. Rohman (2023). Phytoremediation of Several Wastewater Sources Using Pistia Stratiotes and Eichhornia Crassipes in Indonesia. Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring & Management, 20; 100781
Yao, H., W. Shi, X. Wang, J. Li, M. Chen, J. Li, D. Chen, L. Zhou, and Z. Deng (2023). The Root-Associated Fusarium Isolated Based on Fungal Community Analysis Improves Phytoremediation Efficiency of Ricinus communis L. In Multi Metal-Contaminated Soils. Chemosphere, 324; 138377
Zahari, N. Z., N. S. Fong, F. N. Cleophas, and S. A. Rahim (2021). The Potential of Pistia stratiotes in the Phytoremediation of Selected Heavy Metals from Simulated Wastewater. International Journal of Technology, 12(3); 613–624
Zou, L., S. Zhang, D. Duan, X. Liang, J. Shi, J. Xu, and X. Tang (2018). Effects of Ferrous Sulfate Amendment and Water Management on Rice Growth and Metal(loid) Accumulation in Arsenic and Lead Co-Contaminated Soil. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(9); 8888–8902
Authors
Putri, R. F., Sawali, F. D. I., & Afandy, M. A. (2026). Phytoremediation of Fe(III) Using Pistia stratiotes L. - Efficiency and Kinetic Insights. Indonesian Journal of Environmental Management and Sustainability, 10(2), 79-89. https://doi.org/10.26554/ijems.2026.10.2.79-89
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