Risk Assessment of Chemical Exposure through Consumption of Rainwater in Coastal Areas
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Abstract
Coastal communities rely heavily on Rainwater as their main drinking water source, even though it can be contaminated with harmful chemicals such as nitrates, cadmium, fluoride, and lead. Prolonged exposure to these contaminants poses significant health risks, especially for vulnerable groups such as children and the elderly. This study aims to conduct a comprehensive health risk assessment of chemical exposure through rainwater consumption in coastal populations. An observational-analytical design was used, with the Environmental and Health Risk Assessment framework. The study population was divided into two groups: community and environmental samples. Rainwater samples were collected from eight shelter points, while 94 residents (children and adults) were selected as study subjects. Data collection was carried out through laboratory analysis and structured interviews. The Environmental and Health Risk Assessment methodology is carried out in four stages: hazard identification, dose-response analysis, exposure assessment, and risk characterization. The results showed that the concentration of chemical parameters (NO3, Cd, Pb, and F) in Rainwater was still within the permissible limits, indicating that Rainwater was relatively safe for consumption. The study provides important insights into the chemical risks associated with Rainwater, offering a foundation for targeted interventions to protect public health, strengthen resilience to environmental hazards, and ensure sustainable management of water resources. The results of the study show that the quality of Rainwater consumed by coastal communities is still within safe limits, but it still needs attention because prolonged exposure has the potential to cause health problems, the study also contributes to the existing literature by integrating chemical risk assessment into public health planning for vulnerable coastal populations, highlighting the importance of proactive risk management strategies in mitigating long-term health impacts.
References
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Deng, X. and G. Chen (2022). Characteristics of Water Pollution and Evaluation of Water Quality in Subsidence Water Bodies in Huainan Coal Mining Areas, China. Journal of Chemistry, (1); 2857700
Dobrinas, S., A. Soceanu, N. Manea, A. Sirbu, C. I. Dumitrescu, V. Popescu, S. Birghila, N. Matei, and I. C. Popovici (2022). Health Risk Assessment of Fluoride Exposure Due to Groundwater Consumption in Romania. Journal of Water and Health, 20(9); 1380–1392
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Hoinaski, L., D. Franco, R. Haas, R. F. Martins, and H. D. M. Lisboa (2014). Investigation of Rainwater Contamination Sources in the Southern Part of Brazil. Environmental Technology, 35(7); 868–881
Hooshmandi, M., A. M. Tehrani, M. H. Mohraz, M. Leili, and M. J. Assari (2023). Evaluation of Seasonal Variation on the Health Risks Using the Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment Approach in a Wastewater Treatment Plant in Hamadan, Iran. Journal of Research in Health Sciences, 23(1); 1–7
Islam, M. S., K. Nakagawa, M. Abdullah-Al-Mamun, A. S. Khan, M. A. Goni, and R. Berndtsson (2022). Spatial Distribution and Source Identification of Water Quality Parameters of an Industrial Seaport Riverbank Area in Bangladesh. Water, 14(9); 1356
Jayalath, G. N. T. and A. S. Ratnayake (2025). Overview of Coastal and Marine Pollution: Sources, Impacts, and Challenges. Coastal and marine pollution: Source to sink, mitigation and management; 1–25
Kementerian Kesehatan Republik Indonesia (2023). Laporan Tahunan: Pengamanan Kualitas Air Minum Tahun 2022. (in Indonesia)
Konan, B. R., V. Yoboue, B. Adiaffi, M. Diaby, Y. M. S. Oga, A. Bakayoko, S. Gnamien, S. Keita, J. Bahino, and M. Ossohou (2022). Source of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Rainwater and Effect on the Health of the Population: the Case of the District of Abidjan in the South of Ivory Coast. Journal of Water and Health, 20(6); 985–1004
Kusumawardhana, A., L. Zlatanovic, A. Bosch, and J. P. van der Hoek (2021). Microbiological Health Risk Assessment of Water Conservation Strategies: A Case Study in Amsterdam. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5); 1–17
Li, P., T. Wu, G. Jiang, L. Pu, Y. Li, J. Zhang, F. Xu, and X. Xie (2021). An Integrated Approach for Source Apportionment and Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Subtropical Agricultural Soils, Eastern China. Land, 10(10); 1016
Li, T., J. Bian, D. Ruan, L. Xu, and S. Zhang (2024). Groundwater Health Risk Assessment and Its Temporal and Spatial Evolution Based on Trapezoidal Fuzzy Number–Monte Carlo Stochastic Simulation: A Case Study in Western Jilin Province. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 282; 116736
Mostafaii, G. R., Z. Bakhtyari, F. Atoof, M. Baziar, R. Fouladi-Fard, M. Rezaali, and N. Mirzaei (2021). Health Risk Assessment and Source Apportionment of Heavy Metals in Atmospheric Dustfall in a City of Khuzestan Province, Iran. Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering, 19(1); 585–601
Njuguna, S. M., K. B. Githaiga, J. A. Onyango, R. W. Gituru, and X. Yan (2021). Ecological and Health Risk Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements in Ewaso Nyiro River Surface Water, Kenya. SN Applied Sciences, 3(2); 1–11
Nong, X., X. Yi, L. Chen, D. Shao, and C. Zhang (2023). Impact of Inter-Basin Water Diversion Project Operation on Water Quality Variations of Hanjiang River, China. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 11; 1159187
Okafor, V. N., D. O. Omokpariola, O. F. Obumselu, and C. G. Eze (2023). Exposure Risk to Heavy Metals Through Surface and Groundwater Used for Drinking and Household Activities in Ifite Ogwari, Southeastern Nigeria. Applied Water Science, 13(4); 1–20
Purandara, B. K., T. Chandramohan, M. K. Jose, and B. Venkatesh (2015). Groundwater Quality Investigations and Modeling in Bhadravathi Town, Karnataka. International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology, 3(3); 1–6
Purwanto, M. (2021). Karakteristik Air Baku dan Analisis Pengelolaan Sumber Air pada Skala Rumah Tangga. (in Indonesia)
Qi, M., Y. Wu, S. Zhang, G. Li, and T. An (2023). Pollution Profiles, Source Identification and Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Soil near a Non-Ferrous Metal Smelting Plant. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(2); 1004
Romero, C. M., C. A. Ucán, A. S. Peralta, J. T. Reyes, Y. C. López, V. C. Quiroz, and A. R. Marín (2022). Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals: Cu, Cd, Pb, Ni and Hg in Catfish Ariopsis felis in Southern Mexico. Iranian Journal of Toxicology, 16(3); 163–174
Sakati, S. N., A. Mallongi, E. Ibrahim, H. Amqam, and M. Kanan (2024). Microbiological Exposure Risk Assessment in Rainwater Harvesting Systems: Implications for Community Health. International Journal of Medical Toxicology and Legal Medicine, 27(2); 278–285
Sakati, S. N., A. Mallongi, E. Ibrahim, Budimawan, Stang, S. Palutturi, M. Kanan, and Herawati (2023). Utilization of Rainwater as Consumable Water with Rainwater Harvesting Methods: A Literature Review. Pharmacognosy Journal, 15(6); 1254–1257
Smith, I. (2023). Water Pollution and Cancer: An Updated Review. Science Insights, 43(4); 1079–1086
Sun, T., M. Ma, and D. Y. Wang (2016). Interceptive Characteristics of Lead and Cadmium in a Representative Forest Ecosystem in Mid-Subtropical Area in China. Shengtai Xuebao, 36(1); 218–225
Tenebe, I. T., E. O. Babatunde, J. B. Neris, C. Mikano, O. B. Ezeudu, O. C. Edo, O. H. Fred-Ahmadu, C. D. Chukwuka, and N. U. Benson (2023). Reliability of Stored River Water as an Alternative for Consumption in Ekpoma, Nigeria: A Human Health Risk Assessment. Journal of Water and Health, 21(5); 571–585
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2012). Recreational Water Quality Criteria. Issue December
Urakawa, H., M. A. Kratz, T. L. Hancock, and R. A. Armstrong (2022). QT-AMP: Sequencing PCR Amplicons from Quanti-Tray Wells to Analyze Enterococci Communities. Science of the Total Environment, 839; 156188
World Health Organization (2014). Water Safety in Distribution System. World Health Organization
Xu, M., K. Zhang, Y. Wang, B. Zhang, K. Mao, and H. Zhang (2022). Health Risk Assessments and Microbial Community Analyses of Groundwater from a Heavy Metal-Contaminated Site in Hezhou City, Southwest China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(1); 604
Yang, H. C., M. Jusoh, Z. Y. Zakaria, and A. Rosli (2023). Rainwater to Potable Water: Mini Review. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 106; 775–780
Carpio-Vallejo, E., U. Düker, J. Waldowski, and R. Nogueira (2024). Contribution of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting to Climate Adaptation in the City of Hannover: Water Quality and Health Issues of Rainwater Storage in Cisterns and Ponds. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 256; 114320
Chivu, O. R., A. Semenescu, C. Babis, C. Amza, G. Iacobescu, Z. Apostolescu, V. Petrescu, and G. M. Adir (2017). The Impact of the Industrial Processing of Oil on the Rainfall Water Quality. Revista de Chimie, 68(1); 175–179
Contreras, M., V. Santos Sánchez, J. Alguacil, and R. L. Rodríguez Pacheco (2025). Influence of Phosphogypsum Waste on Rainwater Chemistry in a Highly Polluted Area with High Mortality Rates in Huelva Metropolitan Area, Spain. 7(17); 3102
Czerwi?ska, J. and G. Wielgosi?ski (2019). Changes in the Pollution of Lodz Voivodship Rainwater as a Result of Changes in Pollutant Immissions. Acta Innovations, 30; 31–37
Deng, X. and G. Chen (2022). Characteristics of Water Pollution and Evaluation of Water Quality in Subsidence Water Bodies in Huainan Coal Mining Areas, China. Journal of Chemistry, (1); 2857700
Dobrinas, S., A. Soceanu, N. Manea, A. Sirbu, C. I. Dumitrescu, V. Popescu, S. Birghila, N. Matei, and I. C. Popovici (2022). Health Risk Assessment of Fluoride Exposure Due to Groundwater Consumption in Romania. Journal of Water and Health, 20(9); 1380–1392
El-Aassar, A. H. M., R. A. Hussien, F. A. Mohamed, S. Oterkus, and E. Oterkus (2023). Appraisal of Surface-Groundwater Anthropogenic Indicators and Associated Human Health Risk in El Sharqia Governorate, Egypt. Journal of Water and Health, 21(6); 719–739
Esmaeili, R., K. Ebrahimpour, S. V. Esmaeili, A. Karimi, M. Kamranifar, M. N. Pour, and H. Ebrahimi (2024). Chemical Health Risk Assessment of Exposure to Metal Fumes among Employed Workers in a Metal Manufactory with an Electric Arc Furnace. International Journal of Environmental Health Engineering, 13(5); 18
Fitria, D. Sutjiningsih, and T. Siswantining (2018). The Modelling Study of Well Water Quality in Urban Area (a Literature Study). In AIP Conference Proceedings, volume 1977. AIP Publishing LLC, page 050004
Ghosh, G. C., T. K. Chakraborty, N. Shekder, T. A. Tanin, A. Habib, and S. Zaman (2023). Groundwater Quality and Human Health Risk Assessment in Urban and Peri-Urban Regions of Jashore, Bangladesh. H2Open Journal, 6(4); 576–587
Gunasekara, M. I., I. Mahawaththa, D. Madhubhashini, and K. Amarasena (2025). Pollution from Land-Based Sources: Industrial and Urban Runoff. Coastal and marine pollution: source to sink, mitigation and management, (1); 27–44
Gunjyal, N., S. Rani, B. Asgari Lajayer, V. Senapathi, and T. Astatkie (2023). A Review of the Effects of Environmental Hazards on Humans, Their Remediation for Sustainable Development, and Risk Assessment. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 195(6); 795
Herawati, M. Syahrir, Yusuf, S. N. Sakati, and D. W. Balebu (2024a). Assessing Groundwater Quality in Rural Communities: A Detailed Study of Physical, Chemical, and Microbial Contaminant. International Journal of Medical Toxicology and Legal Medicine, 27(1); 180–188
Herawati, H., M. Kanan, A. Mallongi, R. Bidullah, S. N. Sakati, and D. W. Balebu (2024b). Risk Analysis of Groundwater Contaminant in Rural Areas Using Spatial Distribution. Journal of Public Health and Pharmacy, 4(3); 214–224
Hoinaski, L., D. Franco, R. Haas, R. F. Martins, and H. D. M. Lisboa (2014). Investigation of Rainwater Contamination Sources in the Southern Part of Brazil. Environmental Technology, 35(7); 868–881
Hooshmandi, M., A. M. Tehrani, M. H. Mohraz, M. Leili, and M. J. Assari (2023). Evaluation of Seasonal Variation on the Health Risks Using the Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment Approach in a Wastewater Treatment Plant in Hamadan, Iran. Journal of Research in Health Sciences, 23(1); 1–7
Islam, M. S., K. Nakagawa, M. Abdullah-Al-Mamun, A. S. Khan, M. A. Goni, and R. Berndtsson (2022). Spatial Distribution and Source Identification of Water Quality Parameters of an Industrial Seaport Riverbank Area in Bangladesh. Water, 14(9); 1356
Jayalath, G. N. T. and A. S. Ratnayake (2025). Overview of Coastal and Marine Pollution: Sources, Impacts, and Challenges. Coastal and marine pollution: Source to sink, mitigation and management; 1–25
Kementerian Kesehatan Republik Indonesia (2023). Laporan Tahunan: Pengamanan Kualitas Air Minum Tahun 2022. (in Indonesia)
Konan, B. R., V. Yoboue, B. Adiaffi, M. Diaby, Y. M. S. Oga, A. Bakayoko, S. Gnamien, S. Keita, J. Bahino, and M. Ossohou (2022). Source of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Rainwater and Effect on the Health of the Population: the Case of the District of Abidjan in the South of Ivory Coast. Journal of Water and Health, 20(6); 985–1004
Kusumawardhana, A., L. Zlatanovic, A. Bosch, and J. P. van der Hoek (2021). Microbiological Health Risk Assessment of Water Conservation Strategies: A Case Study in Amsterdam. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5); 1–17
Li, P., T. Wu, G. Jiang, L. Pu, Y. Li, J. Zhang, F. Xu, and X. Xie (2021). An Integrated Approach for Source Apportionment and Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Subtropical Agricultural Soils, Eastern China. Land, 10(10); 1016
Li, T., J. Bian, D. Ruan, L. Xu, and S. Zhang (2024). Groundwater Health Risk Assessment and Its Temporal and Spatial Evolution Based on Trapezoidal Fuzzy Number–Monte Carlo Stochastic Simulation: A Case Study in Western Jilin Province. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 282; 116736
Mostafaii, G. R., Z. Bakhtyari, F. Atoof, M. Baziar, R. Fouladi-Fard, M. Rezaali, and N. Mirzaei (2021). Health Risk Assessment and Source Apportionment of Heavy Metals in Atmospheric Dustfall in a City of Khuzestan Province, Iran. Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering, 19(1); 585–601
Njuguna, S. M., K. B. Githaiga, J. A. Onyango, R. W. Gituru, and X. Yan (2021). Ecological and Health Risk Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements in Ewaso Nyiro River Surface Water, Kenya. SN Applied Sciences, 3(2); 1–11
Nong, X., X. Yi, L. Chen, D. Shao, and C. Zhang (2023). Impact of Inter-Basin Water Diversion Project Operation on Water Quality Variations of Hanjiang River, China. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 11; 1159187
Okafor, V. N., D. O. Omokpariola, O. F. Obumselu, and C. G. Eze (2023). Exposure Risk to Heavy Metals Through Surface and Groundwater Used for Drinking and Household Activities in Ifite Ogwari, Southeastern Nigeria. Applied Water Science, 13(4); 1–20
Purandara, B. K., T. Chandramohan, M. K. Jose, and B. Venkatesh (2015). Groundwater Quality Investigations and Modeling in Bhadravathi Town, Karnataka. International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology, 3(3); 1–6
Purwanto, M. (2021). Karakteristik Air Baku dan Analisis Pengelolaan Sumber Air pada Skala Rumah Tangga. (in Indonesia)
Qi, M., Y. Wu, S. Zhang, G. Li, and T. An (2023). Pollution Profiles, Source Identification and Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Soil near a Non-Ferrous Metal Smelting Plant. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(2); 1004
Romero, C. M., C. A. Ucán, A. S. Peralta, J. T. Reyes, Y. C. López, V. C. Quiroz, and A. R. Marín (2022). Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals: Cu, Cd, Pb, Ni and Hg in Catfish Ariopsis felis in Southern Mexico. Iranian Journal of Toxicology, 16(3); 163–174
Sakati, S. N., A. Mallongi, E. Ibrahim, H. Amqam, and M. Kanan (2024). Microbiological Exposure Risk Assessment in Rainwater Harvesting Systems: Implications for Community Health. International Journal of Medical Toxicology and Legal Medicine, 27(2); 278–285
Sakati, S. N., A. Mallongi, E. Ibrahim, Budimawan, Stang, S. Palutturi, M. Kanan, and Herawati (2023). Utilization of Rainwater as Consumable Water with Rainwater Harvesting Methods: A Literature Review. Pharmacognosy Journal, 15(6); 1254–1257
Smith, I. (2023). Water Pollution and Cancer: An Updated Review. Science Insights, 43(4); 1079–1086
Sun, T., M. Ma, and D. Y. Wang (2016). Interceptive Characteristics of Lead and Cadmium in a Representative Forest Ecosystem in Mid-Subtropical Area in China. Shengtai Xuebao, 36(1); 218–225
Tenebe, I. T., E. O. Babatunde, J. B. Neris, C. Mikano, O. B. Ezeudu, O. C. Edo, O. H. Fred-Ahmadu, C. D. Chukwuka, and N. U. Benson (2023). Reliability of Stored River Water as an Alternative for Consumption in Ekpoma, Nigeria: A Human Health Risk Assessment. Journal of Water and Health, 21(5); 571–585
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2012). Recreational Water Quality Criteria. Issue December
Urakawa, H., M. A. Kratz, T. L. Hancock, and R. A. Armstrong (2022). QT-AMP: Sequencing PCR Amplicons from Quanti-Tray Wells to Analyze Enterococci Communities. Science of the Total Environment, 839; 156188
World Health Organization (2014). Water Safety in Distribution System. World Health Organization
Xu, M., K. Zhang, Y. Wang, B. Zhang, K. Mao, and H. Zhang (2022). Health Risk Assessments and Microbial Community Analyses of Groundwater from a Heavy Metal-Contaminated Site in Hezhou City, Southwest China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(1); 604
Yang, H. C., M. Jusoh, Z. Y. Zakaria, and A. Rosli (2023). Rainwater to Potable Water: Mini Review. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 106; 775–780
Authors
Syahrir, M., Sakaty, S. N., Herawati, H., & Balebu, D. W. (2026). Risk Assessment of Chemical Exposure through Consumption of Rainwater in Coastal Areas. Indonesian Journal of Environmental Management and Sustainability, 10(2), 112-119. https://doi.org/10.26554/ijems.2026.10.2.112-119
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